Highlights

•: Dual use of AI implies that tools designed for good be used as weapons and the need to regulate them from that perspective.
•: Tools which may affect people′s freedom should be treated as a weapon and be subject to International Humanitarian Law.
•: A freeze in investigations is neither possible nor desired, nor is the maintenance of the current status quo.
•: The key ethical principles are that the way algorithms work is understood and the humans retain enough control.
•: All artificial intelligence developments should take into account possible military uses of the technology from inception.

Abstract

Most artificial intelligence technologies are dual-use. They are incorporated into both peaceful civilian applications and military weapons systems. Most of the existing codes of conduct and ethical principles on artificial intelligence address the former while largely ignoring the latter. But when these technologies are used to power systems specifically designed to cause harm, the question must be asked as to whether the ethics applied to military autonomous systems should also be taken into account for all artificial intelligence technologies susceptible of being used for those purposes. However, while a freeze in investigations is neither possible nor desirable, neither is the maintenance of the current status quo. Comparison between general-purpose ethical codes and military ones concludes that most ethical principles apply to human use of artificial intelligence systems as long as two characteristics are met: that the way algorithms work is understood and that humans retain enough control. In this way, human agency is fully preserved and moral responsibility is retained independently of the potential dual-use of artificial intelligence technology.

Introduction